Historical Context: From Civil War to Indian wars:
The American Civil War (1861-1865) is remembered for being
the most violent war ever fought on American Soil. The war divided the North
and South of the United States due to differing views on slavery. Historian Boyd
Cothran, in his New York Times article, ‘How
the Civil War Became the Indian Wars’ suggests that the Civil War also led
to further wars with Indians in the West. Cothran claims that ‘During the era
of Reconstruction, many American soldiers, whether they had fought for the
Union or the Confederacy, redeployed to the frontier. They became shock troops
of empire. The federal project of demilitarization, paradoxically, accelerated
the conquest and colonization of the West.’ Cothran here suggests that soldiers
after the Civil War were redeployed to help ‘accelerate’ westward expansion. This
‘acceleration’ was often halted, as settlers and the army came into conflict with
various Indian tribes. As a result of this, the army was deployed into various
forts across the west with the aim of forcing the Indians into reservations,
which had for many years already been a key aim of the Government due to laws introduced
in Andrew Jacksons presidency including the Indian removal act. The Diary
of William Addison Bushnell provides a narrative of a solider during the final
years of the Civil War, in which he and his regiment head from San Francisco to
Fort (camp) Goodwin along the Butterfield trail (image above) with the aim of
moving Indians into reservations. Featured below is the context surrounding
Bushnell’s journey as well as a brief history of his regiment. The Diary, and the subsequent stories revealed in his entries, act as microcosms for the ongoing movement westwards with stories representing the hopes, dreams and struggles of the American people and Government.
“This realistic look at military life on the frontier, in an era when
half the enlisted men were illiterate, William Bushnell brings an educated
humor to an otherwise bleak existence. His poetry and prose accounts, certainly
the exception to an enlisted soldier’s view of his daily life, show a
sensitivity and optimism in what must have been unbearable conditions. Fort
Goodwin was established 21 June 1864 and according to Joseph Fish’s History of
Arizona, "the situation at Fort Goodwin was so unhealthy as to render the
largest proportion of the personnel unfit for active duty most of the time. Out
of 250 men in the post, not more than 20 were fit for duty." (The post was
abandoned on 14 March 1871.) His accounts of the problems with camp rations
touch on a significant command issue in the regiment. The shortages were due to
various blunders connected with the change in departments and commanders.
Further, the notion that military success might be achieved by offering the
Indians food and protection, on one hand, and ceaseless attacks from all
directions on the other , brought senior command criticism to Gen. Mason and
others. The U.S. had adopted the Mexican theory of extermination, and thusly,
committed acts of inhumane treachery and cruelty that made the Indians our
implacable foes. It is estimated that this policy, just from 1861 to 1870, cost
the U.S. $40 million and 1,000 lives”.
This introduction to Bushnell’s journey shows most
importantly how the Indians were ‘implacable foes’ to the American people. As a
result of laws established by the U.S. Government before and after the Civil War, they themselves alienated the
Natives rather than aiming to compromise with them in any respectful way.
“Company K, organized October 28, 1861, at San Francisco. Left San
Francisco January 7, 1862, for Humbolt Military District; established Post
Lippitt, Humboldt County, Cal., January 10, 1862. July, 1862 company engaged in
scout in the neighborhood of Eel River; captured about two hundred Indians, and
left them on the Humboldt Reservation. April 30, 1862, while a detachment of
the company was escorting a Government pack train from Arcata to Fort Gaston,
Cal., a number of concealed Indians fired on the train, killing private Andrew
Smith and wounding Corporal Patrick Agan in the arm. Company left Fort Gaston,
June 20, 1863, for Fort Humboldt, Cal.; left Fort Humboldt for Benicia
Barracks, June 28 1863; Left Benicia for Chico, Butte County, Cal., August 14,
1863; arrived August 16, 1863; left Chico for Benicia, October 26, 1863; left
Benicia for Fort Miller, Cal., December 19, 1863; arrived December 26, 1863;
left Fort Miller, October 1 1864, for Presidio, San Francisco; arrived October
8, 1864. Stationed there till ordered to Arizona, August 15, 1865”.
Bushnell enlisted while Company K resided at Presidido, San Francisco during December 1864. During the Summer of 1864, Bushnell and company K left Presididio and headed to Fort Goodwin in Arizona along the Butterfield trail.
Westward Expansion: Tales of a Developing Land
Bushnell’s diary takes place during 1862-1866 and his Diary
comments on many of the themes surrounding Westward Expansion. This Blog has
chosen diary entries which best express these themes surrounding the
development of the West, and these include: the formation of settlements and
the representation of Native Americans.
‘Valley of Gila’: The formation of settlements
“Oct. 16, 1864: Were compelled to
make a departure from our ordinary starting hour on account of the teams being
sent after barley. It was 8 ½ A. M. when we got under way and 11 ½ A. M. we
encamp at Burke’s Station (an old overland stage station) distance 12 miles, no
houses nor any evidence of inhabitants except an Emigrant Train from Texas.
They represent themselves as being destitute of provisions and money. They are
bound for California. The train consists mostly of women and children. - Pass
over plains of dry grass which would have made excellent hay and it been cut in
due season. My prediction is that the valley of the Gila will some day contain
nice farms and fields of cotton where nothing grows now but luxuriant grass and
willow”.
This diary entry from October 16th 1864, was
written while the regiment marched from Fort Presidio, California, to Fort
Goodwin, Arizona. Within this entry he describes the story of a number of women
and children heading west to California. This in itself represents the ‘settler
ambition’ of westward expansion, and how many were moving from east to west in
search of creating new settlements. Furthermore,
Bushnell predicts that the Gila Valley area will become agricultural land, as
the area is rich with ‘dry plains’ and ‘fields of cotton’. Bushnell’s diary entry
can be seen as a ‘microcosm’ for the concept of westward expansion, with families
heading west in search of free and open land in which to create new, flourishing
communities.
Apache Trouble: Representation of Native Americans
“Oct. 17, 1864: Leave
camp as usual at 5 A. M. and arrive at Oatman Flat at 8 ½ A. M. distance 12
miles. The country over which we travel today is rough and rocky. The entire
country is strewn with a species of burnt rock resembling lava. After leaving
the upland for the river bottom by descending a steep rocky hill, we find
ourselves on "Oatman Flat". About a quarter of a mile after leaving
the bluff, on the left had side of the road is a small enclosure about six feet
square at one end of which may be seen a board bearing the crude inscription
"The Oatman Family, 1851". Here it was that the ill fated emigrants
perished at the hands of the blood-thirsty Apaches - and over yonder bluff in a
southerly direction, they bore their pale-faced captives. Seven of the family
are said to be buried in the grave by the roadside viz, the two Oatman
brothers, the younger brother’s wife and 4 children some of which, I believe,
belonged to the elder Oatman who was a widower. We encamp at the upper end of
the Oatman Flat on the river.”
Bushnell’s next entry tells the story of the ‘Oatman Family’,
who were murdered by ‘blood-thirsty Apaches’. Bushnell’s brief description of
the Oatman family massacre describes how the whole family ‘perished’ at the
hands of the Apaches, which would lead one to interpret the Indians as ‘savages’.
Oatman’s portrayal is similar to future portrayals of Indians in Western films and novels,
in which they are usually featured as antagonists to those wanting to settle on
‘new land’. The story of the Oatman family does continue beyond Bushnell’s
brief description. The image featured above is of Olive Oatman, whom survived
the attack and was captured by the Indians. Olive was later rescued by the U.S.
army and reunited with her brother Lorenzo who also survived the attack, but
struggled in later life with physical (as shown in the image) and psychological scars as a result of
her capture. Bushnell’s interpretation and Olive’s story reveals why
Native Americans are often represented as ‘hostile savages’ in film and
literature, as they remain examples of what was halting the violent process of
U.S. westward expansion.
Friendly Natives: representation of Native Americans
“Oct. 21, 1864 After
building fires, making coffee and replenishing our canteens from the barrels in
the wagons, we resume our march with renewed energy at 2 A. M. In 8 miles pass
the "Tank", no water. At 8 A. M. we arrive at Maricopa Wells which
takes the name from the tribe of Indians residing here. They are innumerable,
or seem to be, and flock around our camp with fine water-melons for sale. They
are fine looking Indians and are on good terms with the whites. They speak
considerable Spanish and make some pretensions to clothing themselves”.
Bushnell’s October 21st 1864 entry contradicts his
previous representation of Indians. The tribe of Indians who feature in this
entry are described as ‘fine looking’ and are ‘on good terms with the whites’. This
representation challenges the pervious ‘Oatman/Apache’ story as these Indians
are represented as being civilized in terms of their clothing and behaviour. Furthermore,
it reveals the diversity of Native American tribes and how some were dangerous
and posed a threat to the Americans, and how some were willing to trade and
accept there movement westwards.
References:
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~steelquist/WmBushnell.html
http://wildwesthistory.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/olive-oatman-survivors-story.html
https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/05/25/how-the-civil-war-became-the-indian-wars/?_r=0
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